The Conscription of Informal Political Representatives*

Informal political representation—the phenomenon of speaking or acting on behalf others although one has not been elected selected to do so by means a systematized election selection procedure—plays crucial role in advancing the interests groups. Sometimes, those who emerge as informal representatives (IPRs) willingly (voluntary representatives). But, often, people end up being IPRs, either their private lives more public forums, over own protests (unwilling representatives) even without knowledge (unwitting representatives)—that is, they are conscripted. None few theories representation extant accommodate conscripted IPRs. The account detailed here introduces and explains its place complete theory representation. Conscripted IPRs can, like voluntary counterparts, come have significant power influence how various audiences regard for whom speak act. Upon attaining such influence, pro tanto duties represent—duties that arise despite IPRs’ unwittingness unwillingness. Understanding allows us surface essential normative questions about otherwise occluded. As an IPR, Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., spoke acted Black Montgomerians from pulpit,1 planning meetings,2 leaflets urging bus boycott.3 He made demands behalves nightly news4 back rooms.5 negotiated them with mayor Montgomery, city commissioners, company representatives.6 So positioned, King had shape negotiations unfolded between boycotters, City, company, played central shaping Montgomerians’ values, interests, preferences were understood rest Montgomery.7 But hear tell it, this was what he planned, at least first: “I neither started protest nor suggested it. I simply responded call spokesman.”8 Then, Thursday, December 8, 19559—the fourth day boycott10—King other members Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) met “city fathers”11 offer list proposals Montgomerian community: “The then turned Negro delegation demanded: ‘Who is spokesman?’ When all eyes toward [King], said: ‘All right, forward make your statement.’”12 Call audience uptake. Audience uptake occurs when audience—an individual group—takes person group act another group.13 By King’s account, became IPR news conference because “all [him]” after Montgomery’s Mayor Gayle asked “Who spokesman?”.14 Being taken represent formal, procedure both widespread undertheorized phenomenon.15 Often, we treat it deviant case formal representation.16 addendum well captured our best Accordingly, need takes terms does derivative develop first know is. Recently, several theorists characterized arising virtue volunteering. These voluntarist accounts focus groups take themselves though so. Laura Montanaro discusses Oxfam’s self-appointment poor.17 Michael Saward emphasizes representative claim-makers, advance say-so.18 Andrew Rehfeld would-be representative’s self-appointment, but instead averment that, yes, become representative.19 Voluntarist common assumption must choose so.20 that’s always Although true often hold forth groups, makes party emerges (rather than wannabe) say-so. Rather, through This becoming reluctance (unwillingness) unawareness situated (unwittingness). Thus, appoint oneself,21 claim,22 accept position once conferred audience.23 Some be while Or will argue. article reconceptualizes An IPR’s desire represent, intention awareness may each play helping understand came positioned. Yet necessary emerging IPR. Recognizing accommodating improves three ways: First, helps get right analytical grip identifying core feature obscured accounts: can represented regarded influence.24 Second, provides coherent vary depending on, inter alia, whether volunteered Many audiences, choices gain power. Willingness plays no constituting difference thereby acquires. conflate Third, accommodates tells owe because, shall see, any In Section II, provide general characterization briefly distinguish (FPRs). III, explain uptake—the sole constitutive condition party’s emergence IPR—and discuss importance IV, analyze greater detail consider why conscript V, powers conscripting audiences. VI, some implications conscription themselves. VII, conclude. subtype generally, counterpart, triadic relationship representative, party, audience. speaks acts given context, having procedure. informality. informality obtains, there way selected. noted, fact someone under conditions Audiences shapes sizes. They large include just person. might crowd rally pundit my mother yours.25 becomes context obtain. essentially political,26 less subject matter forum which occurs. Subject matter. forums inherently political.27 Imagine you friends around dinner table. religious, are. conversation turns practice prayer. Your ask only practice, fellow congregants’ practices. You serve others—maybe congregants, maybe religious such. Nothing described especially political. shifts. congregants feel permissibility prayer town meetings.28 Dinner usually mind think traditional yet called upon concerning distinctively matter—in case, member, Forum. Like representation, obviously forums. forum—like Greta Thunberg addressing United Nations Climate Action Summit Generation Z or, she put “we live consequences” climate change.29 Her informal, arises forum. Or, above, these extremes, many cases respective Both held affect and, if so, much. While most unlikely amount type has—invited entire generation—it likely point course everyday frequent. (Consider moment ever compatriots traveling abroad.) thrust also varied manifestations. witting willing, informally authorized,30 opening example. always. Consider small meeting. Several individuals together decisions larger group. However, serving sort role—that unwittingly silent absentee counterparts.31 Were inform roles apprise argue follow role, unwilling We meeting attendees would behave differently realize others. Surely balk mere suggestion absent merely shown up. Yet, part moral situation others—whether before Congress, table, meeting, sometimes spite ourselves. superficially similar, differ FPRs foundational respects. It therefore error ideal form nonideal approximation. authorization contexts markedly different. FPR appointment scheme. tends stable established. authorized, fashion, receive support endorsement (call uptake, uptake). fundamentally different authorization, importantly, precondition IPR.32 Further, tend well-defined memberships, compositions determined law non-governmental still corporately organized bodies, established procedures bylaws. whose memberships defined determining membership. Just looks contexts, too accountability.33 Formal theory, reliable methods holding accountable. For instance, impeachment, recall, good old-fashioned voting out. cases, accountability mechanisms be—for protest, disavowal, dissent—will reliable.34 same time, overlap. formally Association35 Southern Christian Leadership Conference,36 representing, among others, Montgomerians. now brings obtains context. IPR—that besides oneself. That audience, necessarily comprising group, strike counterintuitive. Indeed, acknowledging unusual object, undesirable consequences. non-voluntarily, thought undertaken consent representative. saddled choose, cannot shake. What required obtain particulars case. Still, things said. following rubric assessing whether, obtains: Ascription. ascribes speaker’s actor’s statements actions members. Credibility conferral. regards speaker actor credible source information Testimonial reliance. relies testimony attempting group’s want, value, prefer. Invitation. invites stand members’ stake illustrative, exhaustive. Not above features satisfied obtain, indicate matter, satisfied, confident obtains.37 Uptake backward-looking forward-looking aspects. taking particular uptaking revise belief previously formed updating function. forward-looking: earlier time invite sit later on. indexed about. If perspective Two further considerations point. require me suit. recognize audience’s conferring myself. disagreement revoke criticize try discredit go regarding objections. realized ways. static dynamic occur synchronically diachronically. bystander story neighborhood. A anchor pulls aside neighbors during emergency curfew imposed tornado damaged town’s water system.38 time. happen once. scholar years conducted longitudinal studies in-depth interviews impact damage Eventually, work comes renown accordingly, invited numerous neighborhood’s denizens. Over them.39 So, too, revoked disappear quite two cases. interviewed neighbor interview. contrast, viewed slowly, remain after. much easily identified others.40 example, where handful people, clearly identified—Mayor publicly television cameras “the spokesman.”41 larger, amorphous, involved, difficult. How readers sat homes, read There There, took author, Tommy Orange, Indigenous Americans living big cities?42 Matters complex said such, her be? Of course, possible acknowledge not. And unlike FPRs, limits have, amorphous very elude mean do. unwitting V. On Saturday, January 21, commission attempt stifle boycott. little-known black ministers MIA, Reverends William K. Kind, Benjamin F. Mosely, D. C. Rice, announced press late evening settlement reached. With active complicity Advertiser, commissioners’ erroneous claimed “prominent ministers” agreed plan whereby ten front seats reserved exclusively whites rear ones blacks. Saturday night, Advertiser went press, wire services began distributing reported settlement.45 community—he lacked sincere doxastic attitude chose pretend Montgomerians—creating believe confer uptake—precisely avoid continue already Montgomerians.46 conceptual one: create oneself performing uptake.47 Distinguishing creating within self-appointing claim (“I am emissary … Jewish People,”48 say) hearing claim, confers claims likely, seem sufficient, necessary, entirely mistaken (false positives), should fails negatives).49 Let turn. Ambor students elite university US. She sitting seminar 14 white classmates, discussion experience growing Suddenly, everyone Ambor, expecting American students.50 reasonably deeply doing After all, born raised Jamaica moved US recently college—facts known classmates. gotten something wrong. view, certain instances epistemic quality, status Other meet quality threshold generate false positives. attempts epistemically way, faulty. Faulty think, status. apparent positives apparent. To see this, separate out distinct questions. representing students? done criticizable manner? answer question “yes,” treated concerns brought sincerely students. Here, did: Ambor’s classmates students, her, doing, gained power: available encourage unless revocation occurs, ill. second criticizability. lack grow America grew Jamaica. improperly responsive evidence discounting upbringing. errors render inert, obtained. short, errant Even basis glaring errors, represents characterizing nuanced understanding relationships parties, originating error. respect group: (a) exercises uptaken imputed group; (b) imbued possibly, result, affecting lives. Objection. counterintuitive Reply. Absent little sense characterize hopeful has-been, (the represented), empowers disempowers say whom. give acknowledges lies influence) (audience completely accurately describes emerge. No built mistake. aforementioned got wrong Sure, did bring real Real representatives, (1) members, (2) (3) self-appoint spokespersons. perfectly reasonable criteria someone, respectively, descriptive group51 authority tries self-appointing. objector elides distinctions types phenomena. errant, objector’s elisions understandable. reason authority, self-appoints. resist temptation collapse useful distinction reasons bringing audiences’ parties IV. One P, P Perhaps standard rules normally uses decide apply P.52 Had applied rules, failed identify one. negative bearing instant erred applying rule emerged. contemplated all. concepts parties. family attend college, appropriately considered first-generation college be. matters emerged although, contra voluntarists,53 willingness affects nature